Shiva occupies an exalted status among contemporary Hindu gods. To non-Hindus, the image of Shiva is one of the easily recognizable artifacts of Hinduism.
The story of Shiva’s evolution is noteworthy. In the early Vedic period (Rig Veda – we are talking ~1700-1100 BCE), Shiva was Rudra – a peripheral god – who was generally invoked out of fear. Rudra could save the Vedic people from disaster of which Rudra himself may have been the originator. Rudra evolved into Shiva by the time Shvetāshvatara Upanishad is composed (~400 BCE). By now, Shiva is elevated to the status of the prominent Vedic Gods of Rig Veda – Indra (God of Thunder and Storms) or Agni (God of Fire). Shiva is the prajāpati (the creator) or interpreted differently – he is the creation itself.
Shiva’s fearful and mysterious aspects are also alluded to in the Mahabhārata (~400 BCE – 400 CE). The epic also portrays him as an ascetic who is absorbed in contemplation. It’s later parts indicate awareness of Shiva’s phallic aspect – a common element in Shiva’s iconography in contemporary hinduism.
In the post Vedic Period, Shaivism (the worship of Shiva) developed as a major tradition with the popularity of the purānas. Purānic religion gradually evolved under the rule of the Gupta dynasty (~ 320-500 CE) through the spread of the stories in the purānas. These texts also influenced the brahmanical forms of worship (Smārta or paurānika) during this period. With the decline of the Guptas, Smārta worship (even though well-established by now) began to assimilate some elements of practices of an increasing number of esoteric cults that were cropping up around this time.
A Brahman householder who worshipped Shiva in the Smārta context did so – not as an initiate into a particular Shaiva sect – but within the general vedic framework of mantras and varnāshrama-dharma.
Non-purānic Shaivism during this time can be divided into two categories – those who followed the ‘Outer Path’ (atimārga) and those who followed the ‘Path of Mantras’ (mantramārga). The followers of atimārga were ascetics with a goal of salvation from samsāra (the cycle of birth and death). The sects following the mantramārga were both ascetics and householders – for whom the goal was not just liberation from the world, but also attainment of supernatural powers (siddhis) and pleasure (bhoga) along the way.
Pāshupata, Lākula, Kālamukha and Lingayats were some Shaiva sects following atimārga, while Shaiva Siddhanta and Kashmir Shaivism were the popular mantramārga sects. The mantramārga traditions based their revelation on a vast body of texts called Āgamas and Tantras – considered heterodox by vedic traditions.
At a high level, these strands of Shaivism represent the ambivalent and many-sided aspects of Shiva – for example, the ascetic Shiva who lives far from the society on Mount Kailash, and the householder Shiva who marries Pārvati. Shiva represents a merging of polarities – good and evil, active and silent, creation and destruction – interdependent opposites required for the manifested universe to function. He is the god that can conquer demons and also the god who is compassionate and will answer prayers.
While there is a strong focus on transcendence in all Shaivism, Shiva is nevertheless installed and worshipped in various forms in temples and shrines. Some of his iconographic depictions are:
- as meditating on Mount Kailash (in the Himalayas). He is covered in ashes, has a third eye, matted locks, a crescent moon in his hair and the river Ganges flowing from it. He is also garlanded by a snake and sacred rudrāksha beads and seated on tiger skin while holding a trident.
- with his wife Pārvati, their two sons – Skanda and the elephant-headed Ganesha and with the bull Nandi.
- as Natarāja – the Lord of Dance depicting energy that creates, maintains and destroys the cosmos. He has four arms and is dancing within the circle of flames.
- as Shiva linga – that represents a phallus within a vulva, symbolizing union of Shiva with the energy of shakti (goddess).